Abstract:
Cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s) are found in all kingdoms of life, including mammals, bacteria, fungi, and plants. They represent key tailoring enzymes in the secondary metabolism of microorganisms, contributing to the biosynthesis of a plethora of diverse pharmacologically active natural products. They catalyze a broad range of chemical reactions, e.g. hydroxylations, epoxidations or aryl-aryl couplings. Due to their superior chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivity, as well as catalytic versatility, P450s are increasingly explored in biotechnology for the large-scale production of small molecule compounds that are challenging to obtain through conventional chemical synthesis. Recently, a new subclass of bifunctional P450s in Streptomyces species has been characterized to catalyze intramolecular couplings of 2,5-diketopiperazine-containing cyclodipeptides (CDPs) and nucleobase transfers onto CDPs. The resulting products represent a new class of secondary metabolites with yet unknown biological and pharmacological functions.
In this study, two members of this subclass from different Streptomyces strains, GymB1 and GymB5, were structurally characterized in their ligand-free state. Additionally, a ternary complex structure of GymB5 bound to the CDP cyclo-L-Tyr-L-Tyr (cYY) and the nucleobase hypoxanthine was established. Structure analysis revealed key features of substrate recognition and specificity, including the identification of amino acid residues critical for ligand interaction. Through site-directed mutagenesis, the chemoselectivity of GymB5 was successfully altered, with the enzyme variant exclusively catalyzing the intramolecular cYY coupling, completely switching the wild-type reaction specificity. These findings set the basis for future enzyme engineering efforts to generate novel CDP-nucleobase products.
Polyomaviruses (PyVs) are small, non-enveloped dsDNA viruses that infect a broad spectrum of hosts, including fish, birds, and mammals. In immunocompetent individuals, infections are typically asymptomatic and establish latency. Upon immunosuppression, however, certain PyVs can cause devastating disease. In humans, BK polyomavirus (BKPyV) infection may result in polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PyVAN), potentially leading to graft loss in kidney transplant recipients, whereas JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is the causative agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), an often-fatal demyelinating disorder. Prior to infectious entry of PyVs, cell attachment is mediated by major capsid protein VP1, with 360 monomers forming the capsid of the virus. PyVs predominantly utilize glycans terminating in sialic acids as primary cellular receptors, with differences in VP1 loop regions corresponding to differential glycan recognition. For both JCPyV and BKPyV, multiple genotypes have been described. While for JCPyV, genotypes are classified as either prototypic or neurotropic, in BKPyV, all characterized genotypes have been associated with disease with great variance in geographic distribution. It remains elusive how amino acid substitutions in the four BKPyV genotypes might affect glycan receptor interactions and infectivity.
In this work, binding of synthetic glycooligomers to both BKPyV and JCPyV VP1 was assessed using X-ray crystallography, providing the structural basis for the design of novel cell attachment inhibitors utilizing oligosaccharide motifs. Sequence alignments combined with published structural data enabled the identification of genotypic variability within antibody epitopes of BKPyV VP1, thereby establishing a foundation for future investigations into mechanisms of viral immune evasion. To explore differences in glycan receptor engagement of different BKPyV genotypes, the major capsid protein VP1 was recombinantly expressed and purified. Glycan array analyses led to the discovery of novel carbohydrate ligands and revealed distinct glycan-binding profiles across genotypes. High-resolution crystal structures showed, for the first time, interactions between a non-sialylated moiety of the ganglioside receptor GD1b and BKPyV VP1. Comparative structural analysis across genotypes uncovered variations in receptor engagement that correspond to binding affinities. These findings advance our understanding of polyomavirus glycan recognition and highlight genotype-specific differences in receptor utilization.